Social and Religious Reform Movements in India (Part 2)

Modern History

As India stepped into the 19th and 20th centuries under the influence of colonial rule, a powerful wave of reformist ideas continued to grow. The seeds of transformation planted by pioneers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy began to blossom into regionally diverse and socially grounded movements. These reform initiatives aimed to liberate society from religious orthodoxy, caste rigidity, and gender discrimination, paving the way for a more egalitarian India.

Let us explore the next phase of this reform journey, covering various social, religious, and regional movements that reshaped Indian society.

Jyotiba Phule and the Satyashodhak Samaj

Jyotiba Phule was a visionary from Maharashtra, who came from the socially marginalized Mali community. He openly challenged the authority of Brahmins and the dominance of the upper castes, becoming one of the first modern anti-caste reformers in India.

In 1873, Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society), which had a clear agenda—social justice, women’s education, and the upliftment of backward castes. His key literary works, Sarvajanik Satya Dharma and Ghulamgiri, exposed the social hypocrisy and caste exploitation embedded in religious customs. Phule rejected the divine character of Rama and instead promoted the symbol of Raja Bali, signifying the dignity of the oppressed.

His movement became a beacon of hope for the marginalized, uniting them as a class and instilling a sense of self-worth and identity.

Voices from Maharashtra: Jambhekar, Agarkar, and Pandita Ramabai

Balshastri Jambhekar, often hailed as the “Father of Marathi journalism”, used his platform to critique orthodoxy and question outdated religious practices. His newspaper Darpan was a powerful medium for spreading reformist thought in Maharashtra.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and Gopal Hari Deshmukh (Lokhitwadi) were other notable thinkers who relentlessly questioned blind adherence to tradition. They argued for rational reform and the importance of critical inquiry over religious dogma.

One of the most significant figures in the women’s rights movement was Pandita Ramabai. Born into a Brahmin family, she rebelled against patriarchy and caste privilege by advocating for women’s education and widow rights. She established the Arya Mahila Samaj and later the Mukti Mission in Pune to support destitute women. Her work extended to setting up schools, shelters, and training centers for widows, orphans, and the differently-abled.

Kandukuri Veeresalingam: Telugu Renaissance

In the southern part of India, Kandukuri Veeresalingam emerged as a reformist force among Telugu-speaking communities. Inspired by Brahmo Samaj ideals, he took bold steps in promoting women’s education, widow remarriage, and modern literature.

In 1874, he started the first school for girls in Dowlaishwaram and launched social organizations like Hitakarini Samaj. He also published one of the earliest women-centric Telugu journals, creating a strong foundation for literary and social awakening in Andhra Pradesh.

Reform within the Muslim Community

Wahabi Movement

The Wahabi Movement, rooted in the teachings of Shah Waliullah, sought to purify Islam from local innovations and promote unity among the various Islamic jurisprudential schools. The movement later adopted a political tone under Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmed Barelvi, who believed that British-ruled India was a “Dar-ul-Harb” (land of infidels) that should be converted into “Dar-ul-Islam” (land of Islam).

Titu Mir’s Uprising

Titu Mir, a disciple of Barelvi, led an armed resistance in Bengal. Though largely seen as a religious movement, it also addressed agrarian oppression by Hindu landlords and British indigo planters.

Faraizi Movement

Founded by Haji Shariatullah in Eastern Bengal, the Faraizi Movement stressed the observance of religious duties. Under his son Dudu Miyan, it evolved into a grassroots movement challenging both social and political injustices. The structure of the movement extended from villages to provinces with an efficient system of leadership.

Ahmadiya Movement

Launched by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889, the Ahmadiya Movement promoted rationalism, universal brotherhood, and peaceful co-existence. It rejected violent jihad and emphasized moral and spiritual jihad. This movement was instrumental in spreading modern, secular education among Muslims while maintaining Islamic principles.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement

One of the most influential Muslim reformers of the 19th century, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan sought to bridge the gap between Islamic traditions and Western rationalism. He believed that true understanding of Islam should be compatible with science and reason.

He founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh in 1875, which later evolved into Aligarh Muslim University. His journal, Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq, was a platform for modernist Islamic discourse.

The Aligarh Movement championed educational reform, discouraged political agitation, and emphasized progress through knowledge, particularly for the Muslim community that lagged behind other groups in colonial India.

Deoband Movement

In contrast to the modernism of Aligarh, the Deoband Movement, led by Mohammad Qasim Nanautavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, promoted Islamic orthodoxy. While it opposed British rule and upheld the spirit of jihad, its focus remained on preserving Islamic traditions through religious education and social reform.

The Darul Uloom Deoband, established in 1866, became the nerve center of this movement and continues to be a major Islamic seminary in India today.

Sikh Reform and Akali Movement

The 1870s saw the formation of the Singh Sabhas in Amritsar and Lahore, dedicated to the reform and revival of Sikh traditions. They worked to promote Gurmukhi script, Sikh literature, and purify Sikhism from superstitions and non-Sikh influences.

The Akali Movement (1920s) carried this spirit forward, leading a successful campaign to remove corrupt mahants (priests) from Sikh Gurdwaras and place them under the control of the Sikh community.

Parsi and South Indian Reform Movements

Parsi Reform Initiatives

Behramji Malabari’s Seva Sadan provided shelter and support to destitute women. The Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha, founded by Dadabhai Naoroji and others, focused on modern education, women’s upliftment, and reform within Zoroastrian practices.

Self-Respect Movement

In Tamil Nadu, E.V. Ramasamy Naicker (Periyar) launched the Self-Respect Movement, which openly attacked Brahminical orthodoxy and caste discrimination. His work encouraged inter-caste marriage, rational thinking, and women’s rights, and inspired the Dravidian political movement that reshaped Tamil politics.

Sri Narayana Guru and the SNDP

In Kerala, Sri Narayana Guru initiated the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) to uplift the Ezhava community. His famous motto, “One Caste, One Religion, One God for Mankind”, aimed to eradicate caste inequality and promote temple entry rights, education, and political representation for backward communities.

Other Movements and Organizations

Impact and Legacy of Social Reform Movements

These reform movements played a critical role in challenging orthodox practices, empowering marginalized communities, and fostering a culture of rational thought and scientific inquiry. They laid the intellectual and moral groundwork for India’s nationalist movement by promoting:

Limitations and Challenges

Despite their groundbreaking nature, these movements faced several limitations:

Legislative Outcomes for Women

Summary of key laws inspired or influenced by social reform movements:

Conclusion

The 19th and early 20th centuries were transformative periods in Indian history, marked by courageous reformers and visionary movements. From Phule to Periyar, from Ramakrishna to Ramabai, these pioneers reshaped India’s social fabric with an enduring commitment to equality, rationalism, and justice. While their work was incomplete, it served as the foundation for the freedom movement and modern Indian democracy.

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Subject: Modern History

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