Vijayanagar Empire

Medieval History

The Vijayanagar Empire (1336–1672 CE) occupies a special place in the history of India as the last great bastion of Hindu rule in the South. At a time when large parts of the subcontinent were coming under the influence of Islamic Sultanates and later the Mughals, Vijayanagar stood out as a political, cultural, and economic powerhouse. Built on the fertile banks of the Tungabhadra River, the empire not only resisted external invasions but also nurtured a civilization that became synonymous with prosperity, artistic brilliance, and religious tolerance.

Foreign travelers who visited the capital of Vijayanagar were astounded by its size, wealth, and grandeur. Ibn Battuta, Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzak, Domingo Paes, and Fernao Nuniz all left vivid accounts describing the empire’s strong administration, flourishing economy, bustling markets, and impressive urban planning. Alongside these foreign narratives, indigenous works such as Krishnadevaraya’s Amuktamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam, and Allasani Peddanna’s Manucharitam provide an insider’s view of its politics, society, and culture. Together, they paint a picture of an empire that not only wielded military power but also spearheaded a cultural renaissance in southern India.

The Foundation of Vijayanagar

The empire was founded in 1336 CE by brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, under the spiritual guidance of the philosopher-saint Vidyaranya. Both brothers had previously served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal and later the Kampili chiefs. During the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate into the Deccan, they were briefly captured and converted to Islam. On their release, however, they reconverted to Hinduism under Vidyaranya’s influence and resolved to establish a state that would defend the South from repeated northern invasions.

Choosing the rugged landscape along the Tungabhadra River, with its natural fortifications of granite hills, they laid the foundations of Vijayanagar—literally the “City of Victory.” Over the next few decades, they consolidated their position by subduing the Hoysalas, the Sultanate of Madurai, and other smaller powers, creating a kingdom that was both militarily resilient and administratively sound.

Dynastic Rule

The history of Vijayanagar is traditionally divided into four dynastic phases: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu.

1. Sangama Dynasty (1336–1486)

The Sangama rulers established and expanded the empire. Harihara I, Bukka Raya I, and especially Deva Raya II were among its most influential kings. Deva Raya II, known as “Gajabetekara” (elephant hunter), fortified the army, patronized irrigation projects, and promoted trade with foreign merchants. His court became a hub for poets and scholars, reflecting the cosmopolitan character of the empire. However, after his reign, succession disputes and internal rivalries weakened the dynasty, creating conditions for a new line of rulers.

2. Saluva Dynasty (1486–1509)

The Saluva dynasty, founded by Saluva Narasimha, was relatively short-lived but crucial in stabilizing the empire during a period of political unrest. Saluva Narasimha seized power to protect Vijayanagar from both external threats and internal disunity. Although his reign could not restore the empire’s former strength, it prevented complete disintegration and paved the way for the Tuluva dynasty.

3. Tuluva Dynasty (1509–1570)

The Tuluvas produced Vijayanagar’s most celebrated monarch, Krishnadevaraya (1509–1530). His reign is often described as the golden age of the empire. Militarily, he subdued the Bahmani successor states, annexed the Raichur Doab, humbled the Gajapati rulers of Odisha, and forged ties with the Portuguese, ensuring access to superior cavalry and firearms.

Krishnadevaraya was not merely a warrior-king; he was also a patron of literature, architecture, and learning. He was known as “Andhra Bhoja” for his encouragement of Telugu literature, and his court hosted the famous Ashtadiggajas, or “Eight Great Scholars,” including Allasani Peddanna. Krishnadevaraya himself composed the devotional classic Amuktamalyada in Telugu. Architecturally, he sponsored iconic works such as the Vittala Temple with its famed stone chariot and the Hazara Rama Temple at Hampi. Under his reign, Vijayanagar’s capital became one of the wealthiest cities in the world, rivaling the greatest metropolises of contemporary Europe and Asia.

After Krishnadevaraya’s death, however, weak successors and factional politics eroded the empire’s strength. The decisive blow came in 1565, when Rama Raya, acting as regent, embroiled the kingdom in Deccan politics, culminating in the disastrous Battle of Talikota.

4. Aravidu Dynasty (1570–1672)

Following Talikota, the Aravidu dynasty tried to keep the empire alive by shifting the capital first to Penukonda and later to Chandragiri. While the dynasty held on for another century, the grandeur of Vijayanagar never returned. By the reign of Sri Ranga III, the empire had largely fragmented into smaller Nayaka states, signaling the end of its supremacy.

Political and Military Organization

Vijayanagar’s administration was a sophisticated blend of central authority and local autonomy. The king wielded absolute power, supported by a council of ministers. Succession was generally hereditary, though powerful nobles sometimes influenced the process.

The empire was divided into Mandalams (provinces), Nadus (districts), Sthalas (sub-districts), and Gramas (villages). Local governors, called Mandaleswaras, enjoyed significant autonomy but remained loyal to the crown through tribute and military obligations.

The military was formidable, comprising infantry, cavalry, elephants, and artillery. Horses, imported mainly from Arabia and Persia, were crucial, and the Portuguese played a vital role in supplying them. The Nayankara system, where local chieftains (Nayaks) received land grants (Amaram) in exchange for maintaining troops, provided the backbone of the empire’s military might.

The Vijayanagar rulers were often in conflict with the Bahmani Sultanate and later the Deccan Sultanates over control of the fertile Raichur Doab. While victories were frequent, the united front of the Deccan powers at Talikota shattered Vijayanagar’s supremacy.

Society and Social Life

Vijayanagar society was hierarchical, based on the varna system. Brahmins held important roles in administration and religious institutions, while Kshatriyas dominated the military and politics. Foreign travelers described the people as fond of fine clothing, jewelry, perfumes, and flowers.

Religious life was diverse and tolerant. The Sangama rulers were Shaivites, while later dynasties leaned toward Vaishnavism. However, rulers encouraged religious pluralism—mosques were built, Muslims held positions in administration, and festivals of different faiths were celebrated. Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa praised this atmosphere of religious freedom.

Women’s status was complex. While practices like polygamy, sati, and the employment of women as palace attendants reflected limitations, there were also examples of female intellectuals and writers such as Gangadevi and Thirumalamma.

Leisure activities included dance, music, wrestling, gambling, and festivals. The city of Vijayanagar hosted grand temple rituals and public celebrations that showcased the empire’s wealth and cultural vitality.

Economy and Trade

Agriculture was the cornerstone of the economy, supported by extensive irrigation systems, including tanks, canals, and dams. The state collected about one-sixth of agricultural produce as revenue.

Artisans and craftsmen excelled in textiles, metalwork, and jewelry. Guilds maintained quality and regulated production. The gold coin Varaha was the chief currency.

Vijayanagar maintained flourishing overseas trade through ports like Bhatkal, Cannanore, and Mangalore. Exports included cotton textiles, spices, sugar, rice, and iron. Imports comprised horses, copper, coral, pearls, and luxury fabrics. The Portuguese connection ensured steady access to Arabian horses and facilitated maritime commerce. Traveler Domingo Paes described the markets of Hampi as comparable to the finest bazaars in the world.

Art, Architecture, and Literature

The architectural legacy of Vijayanagar is most vividly seen in the ruins of Hampi, today a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Vijayanagar style is distinguished by towering Raya gopurams (gateway towers), ornate pillars, and expansive temple complexes. Notable structures include the Vittala Temple with its musical pillars and stone chariot, and the Hazara Rama Temple adorned with epic friezes.

Sculpture and metal casting also thrived, producing exquisite bronze and stone icons. Temples at Kanchipuram and Tirupati further testify to Vijayanagar’s patronage of art.

Literature flourished in multiple languages—Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil. Krishnadevaraya’s court was particularly illustrious, with poets like Allasani Peddanna, Tenali Ramakrishna, and others enriching Telugu literature. Works like Amuktamalyada, Manucharitam, and Maduravijayam remain enduring contributions to Indian literary heritage.

Foreign Accounts

Travelers left invaluable testimonies about Vijayanagar:

Though shaped by their cultural perspectives, these accounts consistently highlight Vijayanagar as one of the richest and most advanced civilizations of its age.

Decline and Legacy

The turning point came with the Battle of Talikota in 1565, when the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golconda, and Bidar crushed Vijayanagar’s army and plundered its magnificent capital. Hampi was reduced to ruins, a haunting reminder of its former splendor.

Although the Aravidu dynasty maintained nominal control for another century, the empire fractured into smaller Nayaka states such as Madurai, Tanjore, and Gingee.

Despite its decline, Vijayanagar’s contributions remain monumental. For over three centuries, it shielded South India from northern invasions, fostered economic prosperity, and encouraged cultural creativity. Its ruins at Hampi, its temples, and its literature testify to a legacy of resilience and innovation.

Conclusion

The Vijayanagar Empire was not merely a political entity; it was a cultural phenomenon that unified diverse languages, faiths, and traditions. It safeguarded the South from invasions, promoted global trade, and nurtured some of the greatest works of art and literature in Indian history.

Even though it fell in the 17th century, its impact endures. Walking through the ruins of Hampi today, one can still sense the grandeur of a civilization that embodied victory, creativity, and resilience. The Vijayanagar Empire truly stands as the last great Hindu kingdom of South India—an enduring symbol of cultural brilliance and historical significance.

 

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Subject: Medieval History

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