Mughal Administration and Culture

The Mughal Empire, which spanned the 16th to 18th centuries, stands as one of the most remarkable periods in Indian history. Known for its centralized administration, flourishing economy, and rich cultural heritage, the Mughals laid the foundations of governance and art that continue to inspire even today. The administrative reforms introduced by rulers like Akbar, along with cultural advancements in architecture, painting, and literature, marked a golden era of medieval India.

Mughal Administration

The Mughals borrowed several elements from the Delhi Sultanate and Sher Shah Suri’s administration, but they refined and formalized them to create a more stable governance model. Akbar, in particular, established the framework of administration by dividing the empire into subas (provinces). Initially, there were 12 subas, and each was managed by officials who mirrored the central administration.

Mansabdari System

The Mansabdari system was the backbone of Mughal administration.

• Every noble or officer was assigned a rank called ‘mansab’ that determined his position in the court, salary, and military responsibilities.
• Ranks were divided into ‘zat’ (personal rank) and ‘sawar’ (cavalry rank).
• A noble’s sawar rank determined the number of horsemen he was required to maintain. Each horseman had to keep at least two horses.
• This rank was non-hereditary and could be increased or decreased based on performance, ensuring loyalty to the emperor.

Jagirdari System

The Jagirdari system complemented the Mansabdari structure:

• Land was divided into Khalisa (whose revenue went directly to the imperial treasury) and Jagir (assigned to Mansabdars in place of salary).
• Jagirdars collected revenue from these lands but were frequently transferred to prevent misuse of power.
• Jagirs were classified into four types: Jagir Tankha (in lieu of pay), Mashrut Jagirs (conditional), Inam Jagirs (gifted lands), and Watan Jagirs (ancestral holdings).
• To maintain transparency, records like Jama-Dami were kept, where revenue was assessed in dams (40 dams = 1 rupee).

Central Administration

The emperor was the supreme authority, enjoying absolute power. The central administration consisted of four main departments:

• Diwan (Wazir): In charge of revenue, finance, and overall administration.
• Mir Bakhshi: Head of military affairs, recruitment, and payment of soldiers.
• Mir Saman (Khan-i-Saman): Managed royal workshops, stores, and the imperial household.
• Sadr-us-Sudur: Looked after religious endowments, education, and charitable grants.

Occasionally, a Vakil (deputy) was appointed, superior to all ministers, acting as the emperor’s trusted aide.

Provincial and Local Administration

• Each suba was governed by a Subahdar (or Nazim) who handled civil, judicial, and military responsibilities.
• Provincial administration mirrored the central structure with officials like provincial diwan, bakshi, and sadr.
• Provinces were subdivided into sarkars, and further into parganas, with officials such as Faujdar (law and order), Amalguzar (revenue collection), and Shiqdar (administration).

At the village level, the Muqaddam (headman) and Patwari maintained law and order and recorded revenues.

Revenue System

Akbar’s Dahsala or Zabti system, introduced with the help of Raja Todar Mal, was a landmark reform.

• Revenue was fixed at one-third of the average produce of the last ten years, calculated in cash.
• Lands were classified as Polaj (cultivated every year), Parauti (fallow for a year), and Chachar (left uncultivated for years).
• Systems like Batai (crop-sharing), Kankut (land measurement), and Nasaq (rough assessment) were also used depending on the region.

Military Administration

The Mughal army was organized under the Mansabdari system.

• It comprised cavalry (bargir and silahdar), infantry (bandukchi and shamshirbaz), war elephants, artillery, and a weak navy.
• Artillery, particularly under Akbar, became highly efficient, while elephants were both combat and transport units.

Economy During Mughal Rule

Agriculture

• Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. Crops like wheat, rice, barley, pulses, and commercial crops such as cotton, indigo, and sugarcane were cultivated.
• New crops like tobacco and maize were introduced in the 17th century, while potatoes and red chillies appeared in the 18th century.

Trade and Commerce

• Mughal India had a thriving trade network, both inland and overseas.
• Banjaras transported bulk goods, while Bohra traders managed long-distance trade.
• Gujarat served as the main entry point for foreign goods, while the Coromandel Coast became a hub for textile exports.
• Imports included luxury items, metals, and war horses, while exports consisted of sugar, indigo, muslin, and silk.

Mughal Culture

The Mughal period witnessed an unprecedented growth of art, literature, architecture, and painting.

Literature

• Persian was the court language.
• Important works include Baburnama (Babur), Humayunnama (Gulbadan Begum), Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari (Abul Fazl), and Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh (Badauni).
• Poets like Tulsidas and later Mirza Ghalib enriched Hindi and Urdu literature.

Architecture

• Mughal architecture was a fusion of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian styles.
• Akbar’s constructions like Fatehpur Sikri and Agra Fort used red sandstone, while Shah Jahan’s monuments like Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid, and Moti Masjid showcased white marble and intricate Pietra Dura work.
• Gardens like Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh were developed during Jahangir’s reign.

Painting

• The Mughal school of painting began with Humayun’s Persian artists Khwaja Abdul Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali.
• Akbar established karkhanas (royal workshops), producing masterpieces like Hamzanama illustrations and Tutinama.
• Jahangir emphasized naturalistic portraits of birds, animals, and flowers, marking the zenith of Mughal miniature painting.

Decline of the Mughal Empire

Several interconnected factors led to the fall of the Mughal empire after Aurangzeb:

• Weak successors and wars of succession.
• Religious intolerance and alienation of Rajputs under Aurangzeb.
• Economic crisis due to continuous wars and extravagant constructions.
• Invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• Rise of regional powers like Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats.
• Jagirdari crisis and demoralization of the army.
• Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns drained resources and weakened the empire.

Conclusion

The Mughal era represents a blend of strong governance, economic prosperity, and cultural brilliance. While their administrative systems like Mansabdari and Jagirdari left a lasting imprint, their contributions to art, literature, and architecture define India’s medieval legacy. However, rigid policies, economic strain, and weak successors gradually led to their decline, paving the way for regional kingdoms and, eventually, colonial powers.

 

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Subject: Medieval History

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