Delhi Sultanate

The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 marked the beginning of a new chapter in Indian history. It lasted for more than three centuries, until the advent of the Mughal Empire in 1526. During this period, five successive dynasties ruled from Delhi—each contributing uniquely to India’s political structure, economy, culture, and architecture.

Five Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate

1. Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (1206–1290 A.D.) – Founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who started construction of Qutub Minar. Iltutmish and Balban were its prominent rulers.
2. Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320 A.D.) – Alauddin Khalji was its most notable ruler, known for market reforms, price control, and successful defense against Mongols.
3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 A.D.) – Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq were its key rulers, remembered for ambitious but controversial policies.
4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 A.D.) – A relatively weak dynasty with rulers like Khizr Khan.
5. Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526 A.D.) – Ibrahim Lodi’s defeat in the First Battle of Panipat (1526) marked the end of the Sultanate and paved the way for the Mughal Empire.

Administration

The Delhi Sultanate developed a centralized administration with the Sultan as the supreme authority. The Sultans claimed to be representatives of the Caliph and sought religious legitimacy by including the Caliph’s name in khutba (Friday prayer sermons) and on coins.

• No fixed law of succession: Military strength often decided the next ruler, while Ulemas influenced legitimacy.
• Naib: The most powerful official after the Sultan, acting as his deputy.
• Diwani Wizarat: Finance department headed by the Wazir.
• Diwani Ariz: Military department under Ariz-i-Mumalik, responsible for recruitment and army organization.
• Diwani Rasalat: Department of religious and judicial affairs led by the Sadr.
• Diwani Insha: Department of correspondence.

Alauddin Khalji introduced horse branding (dagh) and paid soldiers in cash instead of jagir assignments, ensuring loyalty and efficiency.

Local Administration

• Provinces (Iqtas): Governed by nobles called muqtis or walis who maintained law and order and collected revenue.
• Shiqs: Sub-divisions of provinces managed by shiqdars.
• Parganas: Group of villages under an amil.
• Village: The basic administrative unit led by a muqaddam (headman) and assisted by patwari (accountant).

Economic Policies

The economy was based on land revenue and flourishing trade.

• Land Classification:
  • Iqta lands – granted to officials instead of salary.
  • Khalisa lands – under the Sultan’s direct control.
  • Inam lands – given to religious institutions.
• Revenue Collection: Peasants paid 1/3rd to 1/2 of their produce as land tax.
• Agricultural Reforms: Muhammad bin Tughlaq set up Diwani Kohi (agriculture department) to promote cultivation.
• Urbanization: Delhi, Lahore, Multan, and Daulatabad emerged as thriving cities.
• Industry: Cotton textiles, silk, and sericulture flourished. Paper-making spread widely in the 14th century.

Coinage:

• Iltutmish issued the silver tanka (1 tanka = 48 jitals under Khaljis, 50 jitals under Tughlaqs).
• Alauddin Khalji minted gold coins after his southern conquests.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced token currency, which failed due to mass counterfeiting.

Society

• The caste system remained dominant among Hindus, while Muslims had their own social hierarchy (Turks, Afghans, Iranians, and Indian Muslims rarely intermarried).
• Women’s Status: Declined further due to purdah, polygamy, and the prevalence of sati among Hindus.
• Jiziya Tax: Imposed on non-Muslims (zimmis) for protection; separated from land revenue under Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
• Hindus were rarely appointed to high offices, though some exceptions existed (e.g., Raja Todar Mal later under Mughals).

Art and Architecture

The Sultanate introduced Persian-Islamic architectural features like arches, domes, minarets, and arabesque inscriptions blended with local craftsmanship.

• Qutub Minar:
  • Started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, completed by Iltutmish.
  • A 71-m tall tower dedicated to the Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
  • Alauddin Khalji added the Alai Darwaza with its scientific dome.
• Tughlaq Architecture:
  • Tughlaqabad Fort and the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
  • Kotla Fort built by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
• Lodi Architecture:
  • The Lodi Gardens in Delhi represent the Indo-Islamic style of the last Sultanate rulers.

Music and Culture

• Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), the “Parrot of India,” was a genius in music and poetry:
  • Introduced new ragas like Ghora and Sanam.
  • Invented musical forms such as qawwali and instruments like the sitar (ascribed to him).
• Sarangi and rabab were introduced during this time.
• Indian classical works like Ragadarpan were translated into Persian.

Literature

• Persian was the official language, while regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, and Marathi flourished.
• Historians:
  • Hasan Nizami (Taj-ul-Maasir).
  • Minhaj-us-Siraj (Tabaqat-i-Nasiri).
  • Ziauddin Barani (Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi).
  • Shams Siraj Afif (on Firoz Tughlaq).
• Amir Khusrau’s Works: Khazain-ul-Futuh (Alauddin’s victories), Tughlaq Nama.
• Translations:
  • Zia Nakshabi translated Sanskrit stories into Persian (Tutu Nama).
  • Bengali Mahabharata was patronized by Nusrat Shah.
  • The Bhakti movement encouraged regional literature like Gujarati, Marathi, Kannada, and Telugu.

Conclusion

The Delhi Sultanate laid the foundation of a centralized administration, urban economy, Indo-Islamic art, and cultural fusion. While its rulers were often seen as conquerors, they also brought innovations in governance, architecture, and music that deeply influenced the Indian subcontinent. This period served as a bridge between ancient India and the Mughal era.

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Subject: Medieval History

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