The Imperial Cholas (850 – 1279 AD)

The Imperial Cholas rose to power in the 9th century CE, with Vijayalaya Chola founding the dynasty at Thanjavur. Rulers like Rajaraja I and Rajendra I expanded the empire across South India, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The Cholas established a strong naval force, enabling overseas expeditions and trade dominance.

Rajaraja I built the famous Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Chola administration was highly organized with efficient village self-governance (sabhas and urs). Their society was prosperous, with agriculture, trade, and crafts flourishing under royal patronage. Chola art, bronze sculpture (like Nataraja), and temple architecture reached unparalleled heights. They promoted Shaivism but showed tolerance towards Buddhism and Vaishnavism. The Chola dynasty maintained diplomatic relations with China, Southeast Asia, and the Arab world.

Their decline began in the 13th century due to internal conflicts and the rise of the Pandyas and Hoysalas.

Sources of Information

• Inscriptions: More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved on copper and stone. The inscriptions mainly record the endowments and donations to temples made by rulers and other individuals.
• Land transactions and taxes (both collections and exemptions) form an important part of their content.
• Copper plates: Copper plates contain royal orders. also contain details of genealogy, wars, conquests, administrative divisions, local governance, land rights and various taxes levied.
• Literary sources: Muvarula, and Kamba Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this period.

Important Rulers:

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)

• Greatest Chola Ruler, who helped raise chola empire as largest dominion in South India.
• Titles: Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda & Shivpadshekhara.
• He defeated Chera, Pandya & conquered Maldives Islands.
• Naval expedition against the Sailendra Empire (Malaya Peninsula).
• Expanded trade with China.
• In 1010 CE, constructed the Rajarajeshwara or Vrihadeshvara temple, dedicated to shiva at Thanjavur.
• Rajarajeshwara or Vrihdeshwara temple is a part of “Greatest Living Chola Temples”, & entered the UNESCO World Heritage site list in 1987. This temple is the finest example of Dravidian architecture.
• Developed revenue system where land was surveyed & then revenue was assessed. So, he was referred as Ulakalanada Perumal (great who measured earth).

Rajendra I (1014- 1044 AD)

• Son of Rajaraja I, defeated & conquered whole Sri Lanka.
• Made Chola navy strongest in the area and ‘Bay of Bengal’ was converted into a ‘Chola Lake’.
• He also known as Napoleon of South India
• Title: “Gangaikondachola” & built a city “Gangaikondacholapuram”.
• He was great patron of learning and known as Pandita – chola.
• Encouraged local self-government.

Salient Features of Cholas:

Administration

• King was assisted by council of minister. Perundanam & serundanam were important officials.
• The Empire was divided into:
  • Mandalams (provinces) – Royal princes (in charge)
  • Valanadus – Perinattar
  • Nadus (district) – Nattar
• Autonomous Villages – 30 wards (members selected by lottery type)
• Local self-government was important feature of Cholas rule.
• Ur Nattam was residential portion of the city.
• Ur was general assembly of village & Sabha was gathering of adult men in the
• Brahmana village – Agrahara (rent free villages with autonomy).

Revenue administration

• Main source of income was land revenue, which was 1/6th of produce.
• Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one place to another, various kinds of professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines.
• During the hard times, there were remission of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam Tavirtta Cholan.

Military

• The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. About seventy regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions.
• The royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar.
• Attention was given to the training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams existed.
• The Cholas paid special attention to their navy. The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the Cholas.
• They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for sometime.

Society

• Divided on caste lines: Periyar (Untouchbles), Vellallas (Farming groups).
• Emergence of supra caste dichotomy:
  • Idangai (left hand caste groupings): Consisted mainly of artisanal and trading groups.
  • Valangai (right hand groupings): Consisted mainly of agricultural groups.
• Women were head of some villages, as per some inscriptions.
• Significant shift of royal patronage from gifts to Brahmans to gifts to Temples.

Economy

• Expansions in agrarian economy, use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel) for smooth irrigations.
• Emergence of various crafts centers, i.e., Kanchipuram as important weaving industry centre, Kudamukku was center for betel nut & areca nut production.
• Emergence of trading caste: Garveras (Northern merchants migrated southwards), Gaudas/ Gavundas (originally cultivators).
• Chola had trade relations with Java, Sumatra, Arabia & China.

Literature

• Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century.
• Ramayana composed by Kamban and Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are two master-pieces of this age.
• Telugu version of Mahabharata was started by Nanniah & completed by Tikkana.
• Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I.
• Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.
• The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
• The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalamby Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were written during Chola rule.
• Pampa, Ponna, & Ranna known are considered 3 gems of Kannada literature lived in the 10th century.

Art and Architecture

• Dravidian type of temple architecture reached its climax under cholas.
• Chola king built lofty temples & inscribed long inscriptions on the wall narrating their achievements. They also depict the socio-economic conditions of that period.
• Kailasanath Temple of Kanchipuram was built in 8th century. Airavatesvara temple & temple at Gangaicholapuram, Nataraja temple at Chidambaram are famous.
• Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore was built by Rajaraja in 1078 was dedicated to Shiva.
• The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. The best example of this can be seen in Dancing figure of Nataraja.
• Bharatanatyam & kathakali are two types of dances performed during the Chola period.

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Subject: Ancient History

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