Sangam Period

The Sangam Age (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE) was a golden period in the history of ancient South India, marked by the flourishing of Tamil culture, literature, and trade. It derives its name from the Sangam assemblies of poets and scholars, who composed rich literary works in Tamil, providing valuable insights into the political, social, and economic life of the time. The region was dominated by three major kingdoms—Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas—who were engaged in constant conflicts and maritime trade with Rome and Southeast Asia. The Sangam texts, including the Tolkappiyam and Ettuthokai, describe a society that was diverse, dynamic, and deeply connected to its environment. The beginning of the historical period is marked by the settlements of large scale rural communities which practised agriculture with the help of iron implements, the formation of the state system, the rise of social classes, use of writing, beginnings of written literature, use of metal money and so on. However, all these phenomena did not emerge in a linear fashion in southern India, especially at the tip of the peninsula with the Kaveri delta as the nuclear zone, until about the 2nd century BCE.

• The Neolithic phase of south India which was marked by the use of polished stone axe and blade tools was succeeded by the Megalithic phase (around 1200 BCE – 300 BCE).
• The upper portions of the peninsula were inhabited by people who were called the Megalith builders.
• The megaliths were burials or Graves covered with a huge stone hence the name. These burials have yielded the first iron objects from South India and they give the evidences of black and red ware pottery. They contain not only skeletons of the people who were buried but also pottery, iron objects and grains.
• The first iron objects from south India which include arrowheads, spearheads, tridents (associated with Shiva), hoes, sickles, etc. have been excavated from these megaliths.
• The number of agricultural tools found at megalithic sites is lesser in comparison to tools meant for hunting and fighting implying that the megalithic people did not practise an advanced type of agriculture.
• The megalithic people produced paddy and ragi, and it seems that the cultivated land was very limited and generally they did not settle on the plains or low lands.
• The megaliths are found in all upland areas of the peninsula but their concentration is more in eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.
• The Cholas, Pandyas and the Keralaputras (Cheras) mentioned in the Ashokan inscriptions probably belonged to the last phase of Megalithic culture.

Sangam Age

• Sangam Age is the period from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD in south India.  There were 3 Sangams conducted in ancient South India called Muchchangam.
• Three dynasties ruled during the Sangam Age – the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas, together also known as Tamilakam
• The key source of evidence about these kingdoms is outlined from the literary references of the Sangam Period.
• It refers to the period when large number of poems in Tamil were composed by a number of authors.
• Three Sangams are believed to have been convened at different places under the patronage of Pandya kings of Madurai.
• Sangam was a college or assemblies of Tamil poets held under royal patronage. It is believed that 3 sangams lasted for 9990 years and were attended by 8598 poets and had 197 Pandya kings as patrons.
• 1st Sangam- Old Madurai (Lemurai)  2nd Sangam- Kapatpuram (Alovai)  3rd Sangam- New Madurai
• It was composed between 300 BC and 300 AD. The two broad themes of Sangam literature are love and war and are secular in nature. Sangam Literature is broadly divided into 2 groups – Narrative & Didactic.
• Narrative texts are considered of heroic poetry in which heroes and wars are glorified. They also give idea of state formation in South India.
• Didactic texts are called Kilkannaku/Eighteen minor works consisting of Tirukural and Naladiyar.

Sangam Literature

• The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and five epics named – Silappathikaram, Manimegalai, Jivaka Chintamani, Valaiyapati, Kundalakesi.

Tolkappiyam:

• Authored by Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work.
• Though it is a work on Tamil grammar but it also provides insights on the political and socio- economic conditions of the time.

Ettutogai

• (8 Anthologies) consist of eight works:
• Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu

The Pattuppattu

• (Ten Idylls) consists of ten works:
• Thirumurugarruppadai,       Porunararruppadai,      Sirupanarruppadai,      Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.

Pathinenkilkanakku

• Contains eighteen works about ethics and morals. The most important among these works is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.

Five epics:

They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.

• Silappathikaram Written by Elango Adigal  
• Manimegalai Written by Sittalai Sattanar.
• Jivaka Chintamani Written by Tirutakkatevar  
• Valaiyapati Written by a Tamil Jain ascetic
• Kundalakesi Written by Nathakuthanaar

Tamilkam

• The Sangam literature had a vivid portrayal of the contemporary society and culture of the Tamilkam, stretching between the hills of tirupati and the tip of Kanyakumari. The reason was dominated by the 3 important chief rulers dynasties: Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas
• The Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were engaged in constant conflict.
• The Tamilkam was divided into Five Tinais based on their economic resources, they are the following:
  • Kurinji: Hilly Region
  • Palai: Arid Zone
  • Mullai: Pastoral Tracts
  • Marudam: Wetlands
  • Neital: Seacoast
• Due to different geographical context and ecological specialties people in different Tinais had their own modes of subsistence such as the following –
  • Hunting in Kurinji
  • Animal Husbandry in Mullai
  • Agriculture in Marudam
  • Fishing & Salt Making in Neital
  • Raiding & Plundering in Palai

South Indian Dynasties during Sangam Period

• The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age. The political history of these dynasties can be traced from the literary references.

Cheras

• Region: The Cheras ruled over large parts of modern-day Kerala.  Capital: Vanji was the capital of the Cheras.
• Emblem: The emblem of Cheras is the ‘bow and arrow’.
• Prominent Rulers: The first-century inscriptions references to 3 generations of Chera kings.
• Senguttuvan (2nd century CE) was the prominent ruler of the Chera dynasty.

Features

• Musiri and Tondi were the important seaports in this period.
• Military achievements of Senguttuvan have been recorded in epic Silapathikaram, which talks about his Himalayan expedition where he vanquished many rulers from northern India.
• Senguttuvan introduced in Tamil Nadu the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife.
• He was the first to send an ambassador to China from South India.

Chola Dynasty

• Region: Chola kingdom of Sangam period stretched across modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District.
• Capital: Initially, the capital of the Cholas was Uraiyur. Later it was shifted to Puhar (also called Poompuhar).
• Emblem: The insignia/emblem of the Cholas was ‘tiger’.
• Prominent Rulers: King Karikala was a prominent king of the Sangam Chola dynasty.

Features

• Pattinappalai written by Kadiyalur Uruttirangannanar depicts his life as well as military achievements.
• Various Sangam poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated an alliance of the Cheras, Pandyas and 11 smaller chieftains.
• Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by Karikala.  Trade and commerce prospered during his rule.
• He also constructed irrigation tanks near river Kaveri to make available water for reclaimed land from the forest for farming.

Pandyas

• Region: The Pandyas reigned over the Southern region of modern-day Tamil Nadu.  Capital: Madurai was the capital of Pandyas.
• Emblem: Their emblem was the ‘Carp’.
• Prominent Rulers: King Neduncheliyan was also called Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan.

Features

• According to mythology, the curse of the Kannagi, wife of Kovalan, burnt and destroyed Madurai.
• The socioeconomic condition of the seaport of Korkai was mentioned in Maduraikkanji which was written by Mangudi Maruthanar.
• The last famous Pandyan king was Uggira Peruvaludhi. The Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age began to decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras.

Salient Features of Sangam Age

Polity and Administration

• Form of government: During the Sangam period hereditary monarchy was the form of government.
• Division of kingdom: Kingdom was divided into Mandalam, Nadu (province), Ur (Town), Sirur (Small village), perur (Big Village).
• King: King was called Ko Mannan, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan. He was the centre of the administration. Avai was the court of crowned monarch.
• Council: The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorised into five councils.
• Five important officers that assisted the King: Amaichar (ministers), Anthanar (priests), Dutar (envoys), Senapatiyar (military commanders) and Orrar (spies)
• Military: The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.
• Revenue Administration: The chief source of state’s income was land revenue while a custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade.
• Karai: Land tax,
• Ulgu: Custom duties,
• Iravu: Forced gift/extra demand,  Irai: Tribute paid by feudatories,  Variyar: Tax collector

Economy

• The region that Sangam Literature mentions was prosperous and agriculture, industry and trade flourished there.
• Handicraft: The handicraft included weaving, metal works and carpentry, building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
• Import-export: These were in great demand in the internal and external trade that was at its peak during the Sangam period.
• Items of Export: Maslin, glass beeds, pearls, sandalwood, perfumes, black pepper (Yavanapriya), tortoise shell, medicines, animals and birds.
• Items of Imports: Gold, Silver, Munga, wine, olive oil dry fruits, raw glass, ivory, copper, tin, medicine and slaves.
• Demand of clothes: A high expertise was attained in spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes at Uraiyur.
• Port city: The port city of Puhar became an important place of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port containing precious goods.
• Other significant ports of commercial activity: Were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
• Drain of Western wealth: Many gold and silver coins that were issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero have been found in all parts of Tamil Nadu indicating flourishing trade.
• Pliny, the Roman author and member of senate, in his Naturalis Historia (77CE) regrets the drain out of huge amounts of gold and silver to India.
• Ptolemy in his Geographia (Geography) and Strabo in his Geographica (Geography) also describe this trade imbalance of Roman empire with India.

Society

• Primarily pastoral: Tamil people were primarily pastoral and trace of early megalithic life appear in the Sangam texts.
• Social classes: Arasars (Ruling Class), Kadasiyar (lower classes people) Aanthanars (priests), Vanigar (involved with trade and commerce), Vellalar (Agriculturists).
• Tribes: Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
• Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert). The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
• Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.
• Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
• Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
• Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.  Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.

Position of Women during Sangam Age

• Courage, creativity and spirituality of women was respected in Sangam society.
• Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaipadiniyar were the women poets who enriched the Tamil literature.
• Women were allowed to choose their life partners. But life of widows was miserable.
• There is also a mention about the practice of Sati being prevalent in the higher strata of society.

Religion

• The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.  The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• He was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and Korravai.
• The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.
• Many hero stones with legends inscribed on them were found in different parts of Tamil Nadu.
• This kind of worshipping the deceased has a great antiquity.

Fine Arts

• Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of the Sangam age.  Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings, chieftains and nobles.
• The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar.
• They were experts in folk songs and folk dances. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed.
• A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the Sangam literature. Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.

Decline

• Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline.
• The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries. We have little information about the Kalabhra rule.
• Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period.
• The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and established their rule.

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Subject: Ancient History

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