Early city

Harappa Civilization:

• It developed about 4700 years ago.
• Many of these cities were divided into 2 or more parts.
• The western part was smaller but with higher citadels.
• The eastern part was larger but with lower town.
• The bricks were laid in interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong.
• Special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a tank: Great Bath.
• Kallbangan and Lothai had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.
• Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Lothai had elaborate store houses.
• Houses were either one or two storeyed high, with rooms built around a courtyard.
• Most houses had a separate bathing area, and some had wells to supply water.
• Many of these cities had covered drains.
• All three — houses, drains and streets — were planned and built at the same time.
• Most of the things are made of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
• Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
• Harappans also made seals out of stone which are rectangular and had an animal carved on them.
• They made pots with beautiful black designs.
• Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh about 7000 years ago.
• The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman.
• Tin may have bought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.
• Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka.
• A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds but wooden plough not found while excavation.
• As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form of irrigation may have been used.
• Dholavira was located in the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh water and fertile soil.
• Dholavira was divided into three parts but other Harappan cities 2 parts.
• Large letters of the Harappan script that were carved out of white stone and perhaps inlaid in wood.
• Here raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available.
• A dockyard at Lothai, where boats and ships came in from the sea and through the river channel.

Early Republic

1. Janapadas

• The word janapada literally means the land where the jana or people set its foot and settled down.
• Excavations of janapadas, settlements, were found at Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapur near Meerut.
• The people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals.
• They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard.
• Special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware of simple lines and geometric patterns.

2. Mahajanapadas

• Around 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and they became mahajanapadas.
• Most had a capital city, many of these were fortified.
• The new rajas now began maintaining armies.
• Soldiers were paid regular salaries.
• Changes in agriculture around this time were seen.
• There was growing use of iron plough. Here more grain could be produced than with wooden plough.
• Second, people began transplanting paddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields.

3. Magadha

• Rivers such as Ganga and Son made transport easier.
• Water supplies for both drinking and agriculture were ensured.
• There were iron ore mines in the region which enabled production of strong tools and weapons.
• Bimbisara and Ajatasatru were two powerful rulers who used all means to conquer other janapadas.
• Mahapadma Nanda extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent.
• Magadha’s capital was shifted from Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) to Pataliputra (present-day Patna).
• Alexander of Macedonia reached up to the banks of river Beas with the aim of conquering Magadha, but his soldiers refused to proceed further due to fear of Magadha’s elephant and chariot armies.

4. Vajji

• It had a distinct government system different from Mahajanapadas.
• The government was known as gana or sangha.
• Vaishali (Bihar) was its capital.
• Ruler was called Raja. These rajas performed rituals together and met in assemblies to decide future courses of action.
• Women, dasas (slaves), and kammakaras (landless agricultural laborers) could not participate in these assemblies.
• Both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to ganas.
• Powerful Rajas tried to conquer the sanghas.
• The Gupta era began when the last Sangha ruler was defeated.

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Subject: Ancient History

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