Jallianwala Massacre and Khilafat Issue (1919–1922)

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

Background
• The Rowlatt Act (1919) empowered the government to arrest and imprison people without trial.
• Leaders like Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested for opposing this act.
• A peaceful gathering was held at Jallianwala Bagh to protest their arrest.

The Massacre
• On Baisakhi, over 10,000 people assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, a park enclosed by high walls with only narrow exits.
• Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer entered with 90 soldiers and blocked the main exit.
• Without giving any warning, he ordered firing on the unarmed crowd.
• Soldiers fired till ammunition was exhausted.
• Thousands were killed or injured; exact figures remain disputed.

Aftermath
• Martial law declared in Punjab: public floggings, humiliations, and curfew.
• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
• Widespread anger across India; turning point in national movement.

Hunter Commission (Disorders Inquiry Committee)
• Initially, Congress set up its own inquiry committee.
• Later, British formed Hunter Commission (7 members: 4 British, 3 Indians).
• Congress report condemned Dyer’s act as brutal and martial law as unjustified.
• Hunter Commission criticized Dyer but approved martial law.
• Dyer removed from command and sent back to England, but many British celebrated him as a hero.
• Commission also blamed Gandhi’s satyagraha for disturbing law and order.
• The weak response deepened Indian mistrust of British rule.

Khilafat Issue (1919–1924)

Background
• Ottoman Empire’s Sultan was regarded by Muslims worldwide as Khalifa (Caliph).
• During WWI, Turkey fought against Britain; Indian Muslims still supported Britain hoping sacred Islamic sites would remain under the Khalifa.
• After the war:
  – Ottoman Empire partitioned.
  – Khalifa deposed.
• This deeply hurt Muslim sentiments.

Khilafat Movement
• Leaders: Ali brothers (Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Ajmal Khan, Hasrat Mohani.
• All India Khilafat Committee formed in early 1919.
• November 1919: All India Khilafat Conference at Delhi decided to boycott British goods.

Demands
• Restore Khalifa’s authority over holy Islamic sites.
• Retain adequate territories for Turkey to sustain the Caliphate.

Congress and Khilafat
• Gandhi supported Khilafat to unite Hindus and Muslims into a powerful national movement.
• Moderate Congress leaders were initially reluctant to support a religious issue.
• But Jallianwala Bagh massacre and Hunter Commission report changed Congress’ stance.
• Muslim League also agreed to cooperate with Congress politically.

Main Phases of the Khilafat Movement (1920–22)

1. February 1920
• Hindu-Muslim delegation met the Viceroy but failed to obtain concessions.
• Gandhi declared Khilafat issue more important than constitutional reforms.

2. May 1920
• Treaty of Sèvres revealed harsh terms:
  – Turkey dismembered
  – Khalifa powerless
• Shock strengthened the movement.

3. June 1920
• Khilafat Conference and Congress leaders at Allahabad decided on non-cooperation with the government.

4. August 1920
• Non-Cooperation Movement formally launched on 1 August 1920.
• Coincided with the death of Lokmanya Tilak.

5. September 1920 (Calcutta Special Session)
• Congress formally approved non-cooperation despite opposition from pro-Council entry leaders.

Nagpur Congress Session (December 1920)
• Non-Cooperation resolution adopted unanimously.
• Major organizational changes:
  – Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 created.
  – Reorganization of PCCs on linguistic basis.
  – Entry fee reduced to attract masses.
• First time Congress openly adopted extra-constitutional mass struggle.
• Gandhi declared that swaraj could be achieved in one year through disciplined non-cooperation.

Khilafat Movement and Hindu–Muslim Unity
• Khilafat and Non-Cooperation ran jointly between 1920–22.
• For the first time, mass Hindu-Muslim unity was witnessed in political struggle.
• However, after 1922:
  – Differences emerged between Khilafat leaders and Congress.
  – Some Muslims began to question the value of swaraj.
  – Muslim League regained prominence among conservative Muslims.
  – Communal issues resurfaced (cow slaughter, music before mosque).
  – Additional tensions: Shuddhi/Tabligh and Sangathan/Tanzim movements.
• The unity gradually broke down and gave way to rising communalism.

Conclusion
• Jallianwala Bagh acted as a moral shock, breaking Indian faith in British justice.
• Khilafat added emotional intensity and mobilized Indian Muslims at an unprecedented scale.
• Together, they set the stage for the first major nationwide mass movement under Gandhi.

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Subject: Modern History

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