INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION

Background:
By 1946–47, communal tensions, constitutional deadlock and administrative breakdown made British withdrawal unavoidable. The final process leading to independence involved Attlee’s declaration, Mountbatten’s plan, and the Indian Independence Act.

Attlee’s Statement (February 20, 1947):
- British PM Clement Attlee announced a fixed deadline of June 30, 1948 to transfer power.
- If Indian leaders failed to agree on a constitution, power would be transferred either:
  - to a central government, or
  - to provincial governments.
- British obligations toward princely states would end with transfer of power.
- Mountbatten replaced Wavell as the new Viceroy to speed up the process.

Why a Fixed Withdrawal Date?
- To shock Indian parties into reaching an agreement.
- To avoid a constitutional and administrative collapse.
- To convince Indians of British sincerity.
- Because British authority was rapidly declining (as Wavell had assessed).

Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):
Freedom with partition became widely accepted by mid-1947. Major features:
1. Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies to vote separately as Hindu and Muslim groups.
   - If either group voted for partition, the province would be partitioned.
2. If partition occurred:
   - two dominions (India and Pakistan) would be created.
   - two Constituent Assemblies would be formed.
3. Sindh Assembly to decide its own future.
4. Referendums in:
   - NWFP (North-West Frontier Province)
   - Sylhet district of Bengal
5. Congress demands accepted:
   - No independence for princely states.
   - No separate independence for Bengal.
   - Hyderabad could not join Pakistan.
   - Freedom to come on August 15, 1947.
   - Boundary Commission to be set up.

Outcome:
- Pakistan would be created.
- But Congress ensured Pakistan would be territorially as small as possible.

Why Congress Accepted Dominion Status?
- Quick and peaceful transfer of power.
- Congress needed authority to control growing violence.
- Ensured continuity in administration and armed forces.
- Britain hoped India might remain in the Commonwealth due to India's economic and strategic value.

Indian Independence Act (July 18, 1947):
- Passed by British Parliament based on Mountbatten Plan.
- Key Provisions:
  - Creation of two dominions: India and Pakistan (effective August 15, 1947).
  - Each dominion to have its own Governor-General.
  - Constituent Assemblies to act as legislatures.
  - Central Legislative Assembly and Council of States dissolved.
  - Government of India Act, 1935 to continue temporarily.
  - Pakistan became independent on August 14; India on August 15.
  - Jinnah became Pakistan’s first Governor-General.
  - India requested Mountbatten to remain as Governor-General.

Problems of Early Withdrawal:
- No proper transitional institutions for managing partition issues.
- Mountbatten wanted to be common Governor-General, but Jinnah refused.
- Boundary Commission Award delayed deliberately:
  - Award ready by August 12 but published after August 15.
  - This allowed British to avoid responsibility for resulting violence.

Integration of Indian States:
Patel led this process through diplomacy and firmness.

Phase I:
- By August 15, 1947, all states except Kashmir, Hyderabad, Junagarh signed Instrument of Accession.
- Reasons:
  - Princes surrendered only external affairs, defence, and communications—powers they never had fully.
  - Internal political structure remained unchanged.

Phase II:
- Integration of princely states into Indian Union or new provinces (e.g., Rajasthan, Madhya Bharat, Himachal, Kathiawar Union).
- Some states retained boundaries briefly (Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore-Cochin).
- Achieved within one year.
- Privy purse and posts (like governorship) used as incentives.

Why Congress Accepted Partition?
- Congress recognised long-term failure in bringing Muslim masses fully into national movement.
- Partition was a mixed success-failure of the anti-imperialist struggle.
- Two-fold Congress task:
  1. Building a nation out of diverse communities.
  2. Securing independence.
- Immediate transfer of power needed to stop communal violence.
- Interim Government had virtually collapsed.
- Partition prevented princely states from claiming independence (avoiding Balkanisation).
- Step-by-step concessions had already strengthened League’s separatist stance.
- Congress accepted compulsory grouping and finally partition due to uncontrollable riots.
- Gandhi felt helpless due to widespread communalisation; accepted partition as people seemed to want it.
 

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Subject: Modern History

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