Development of Education in India (18th Century–1947)

Early Educational Efforts (Pre-1813)
• 1781: Warren Hastings established Calcutta Madrasah for study of Muslim law.
• 1791: Jonathan Duncan established Sanskrit College at Benaras for Hindu law and philosophy.
• 1800: Fort William College founded by Lord Wellesley to train Company officials in Indian languages and customs (closed in 1802).

Charter Act of 1813
• First clear legislative commitment to state-supported education.
• Directed the Company to spend ₹1 lakh per annum on:
  – Encouraging learned Indians
  – Promoting modern sciences
• Led to:
  – Calcutta College (1817) by educated Bengalis
  – Sanskrit colleges at Calcutta, Delhi, Agra

Orientalist–Anglicist Controversy
• Debate within General Committee on Public Instruction.
• Orientalists:
  – Promote traditional Indian learning
  – Use Indian languages
• Anglicists:
  – English-medium modern education
  – Focus on Western sciences
• Split even within Anglicists over medium: English vs vernaculars.

Macaulay’s Minute (1835)
• Settled the debate in favour of Anglicists.
• English to be the medium of instruction.
• Funds directed only to Western science and literature.
• Led to “Downward Filtration Theory”:
  – Educate a small elite who would “civilize” the masses.
• Result:
  – neglect of primary and vernacular education.

James Thomson’s Vernacular Efforts (1843–53)
• As Lt. Governor of NW Provinces:
  – Started village schools in vernaculars.
  – Taught practical subjects like agriculture and mensuration.
  – Aimed to train revenue and public works staff.

Wood’s Despatch (1854) — “Magna Carta of English Education”
• Issued by Charles Wood (President of Board of Control).
• Structure introduced:
  – Primary (vernacular)
  – Anglo-vernacular high schools
  – Affiliated colleges
  – Universities in presidency cities
• Key Principles:
  – English for higher studies; vernacular for primary
  – Promote women’s education
  – Teachers’ training schools
  – Grants-in-aid for private institutions
  – Secular education
• Impact:
  – Universities at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1857)
  – Education departments in provinces
  – Bethune School for women (1849)
  – Agriculture Institute at Pusa, Engineering College at Roorkee
  – Rise of Indian private educational initiatives

Hunter Education Commission (1882–83)
• Reviewed progress since Wood’s Despatch.
• Recommendations:
  – State should take special care of primary education; teach through vernacular.
  – Transfer primary education to district and municipal boards.
  – Secondary education to have two streams:
    * Literary → university
    * Vocational → commercial careers
  – Women’s education outside presidency towns must be expanded
• Result:
  – Rapid expansion of secondary and collegiate education.
  – Punjab University (1882), Allahabad University (1887) established.

Indian Universities Act (1904)
• Based on Raleigh Commission report (1902).
• Features:
  – Universities to focus on teaching and research.
  – Government to nominate majority of fellows.
  – Stricter conditions for affiliation of private colleges.
  – Government power to veto regulations.
  – ₹5 lakh annually for improvement of higher education.

Government Resolution on Education Policy (1913)
• Inspired by compulsory education in Baroda (1906).
• Government refused full responsibility for compulsory education.
• But committed to:
  – Removing illiteracy
  – Expanding free elementary education for poorer classes
  – Creating universities in each province

Saddler University Commission (1917–19)
• Studied Calcutta University but issued comprehensive recommendations.
• Key recommendations:
  – 12-year school course; intermediate stage before university.
  – Separate Board for secondary & intermediate education.
  – Universities should be:
    * Unit-based
    * Residential-teaching
    * Autonomous
  – Reduce rigidity in university regulations.
  – Expand:
    * Female education
    * Applied sciences
    * Teacher training
• New universities: Mysore, Patna, Banaras, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow, Osmania.

Hartog Committee (1929)
• Reviewed educational development.
• Recommendations:
  – Primary education → emphasis on consolidation, not rapid expansion.
  – High school → restrict entry to deserving students.
  – Vocationalisation for average students.
  – Restrict university admissions to improve quality.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)
• Based on Gandhi’s proposals (Harijan articles).
• Zakir Hussain Committee drafted programme.
• Principles:
  – “Learning through activity”
  – Handicraft at the core of curriculum
  – Free & compulsory education for 7 years (through mother tongue)
  – Hindi to be taught from Class II to VII; English only after Class VIII
  – Strong community–school linkage
• Implementation halted by WWII and Congress ministries’ resignation.

Sergeant Plan of Education (1944)
• Proposed by Central Advisory Board of Education.
• Post-war reconstruction plan.
• Recommendations:
  – Pre-primary for ages 3–6.
  – Free, universal compulsory education for 6–11.
  – Selective high school education (11–17): academic & vocational.
  – Three-year university course after higher secondary.
  – Abolish intermediate course.
  – Remove adult illiteracy within 20 years.
  – Expansion of technical, commercial, arts education.
  – Training teachers; support disabled education.

Development of Vernacular Education
• Early 19th Century:
  – Supported by zamindars; lacked structure.
  – William Adam’s reports (1835–38) highlighted poor quality.
• 1843–53:
  – James Thomson’s reforms trained teachers for village schools.
• 1853:
  – Dalhousie supported vernacular expansion.
• 1854:
  – Wood’s Despatch formalized vernacular primary schooling.
• 1854–71:
  – Vernacular schools increased five-fold.
• 1882:
  – Hunter Commission pushed for improvement of vernacular education.
• 1904 & 1937:
  – Renewed emphasis under Curzon’s policy and Congress ministries.

Development of Technical Education
• 1835: Calcutta Medical College.
• 1847: Roorkee College of Engineering.
• 1856: Calcutta College of Engineering.
• 1858: Poona Engineering College (affiliated to Bombay University).
• Guindy Engineering College affiliated to Madras University.
• Curzon expanded professional training in:
  – Medicine
  – Agriculture
  – Engineering
  – Veterinary sciences

Conclusion
• The development of education in colonial India moved from elitist Western education to gradual expansion of vernacular, technical, and mass education.
• Despite limitations, it laid the foundation for modern India’s educational structure, while also influencing national consciousness and reform.

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Subject: Modern History

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