Indian Dance: From Prehistory to Natya Shastra

Art and Culture

Roots of Indian Dance: From Prehistory to Natya Shastra

Bhimbetka’s ancient dancers

Long before formal dance schools existed, community life in India included rhythm and group movement. The rock art of the Bhimbetka caves in central India—some 10,000–8,000 BCE—depict not just hunting scenes but figures in lively postures interpreted as communal dances. These sketches reflect an early intuitive understanding of coordinated movement and ceremony.

The bronze beauty of Mohenjo‑daro

In the mature Indus Valley Civilization (approx. 2500 BCE), a small but uncanny bronze figurine of a poised young woman—nicknamed the Dancing Girl—was found at Rakhigarhi, later displayed in Mohenjo‑daro (now in the National Museum, New Delhi). With her hand on hip, forward leg, and confident tilt of head, she suggests deliberate posture, symbolizing early dance as both art and identity. The sophisticated lost‑wax casting technique used in her creation attests to the craftsmanship and cultural attention given to performative life.

Natya Shastra and the first codification of dance

The earliest formal record of Indian dance theory appears in the Natya Shastra, attributed to sage Bharata Muni and thought to have been codified between 200 BCE and 200 CE (with estimates ranging from 500 BCE to 500 CE) Think of it as India’s fifth Veda—it synthesizes music, poetry, script, drama, and dance into one aesthetic science.

Key concepts from this treatise have shaped classical dance through the centuries:

These categories and technical frameworks continue to be taught in all classical schools, adapted to local style.

The Eight Classical Dance Traditions of India

Since 2000, the Sangeet Natak Akademi formally recognizes eight classical dance forms in India, each blending the ideas above with regional heritage:

Below is a rounded comparative look.

2.1 Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)

Often cited as the oldest surviving classical dance still in continuous practice, Bharatanatyam evolved in Tamil devadasi temples under the name Sadir (later Dasi Attam). During the early 20th century, Rukmini Devi Arundale, working with scholar E. Krishna Iyer, revived and Sanskritized the form—renaming it Bharatanatyam, standardizing its repertoire, and founding Kalakshetra School in Chennai to elevate its global status

Structural repertoire (in typical sequence):

  1. Alarippu – rhythmic invocation (nritta)
  2. Jatiswaram – pure dance leading into more complex formations
  3. Shabdam – moderately expressive devotional piece
  4. Varnam – long centerpiece balancing nritta and nritya
  5. Padam / Jayadi – slow emotive expressions exploring love or separation
  6. Thillana – brisk finale full of footwork and rhythmic syllabi

The dance follows Ekacharya Lasya tradition—where a solo performer embodies multiple characters and moods. Movement vocabulary (mudras, kams, ek gestures) is strictly codified; gestures like the Katha mukha hasta (three fingers joined like “Om”) appear frequently.

Music is Carnatic; the mridangam, veena, flute, and nattuvangam (cymbals) are standard instruments. Costumes are temple-style Bharatanatyam costumes with pleated front fan, temple jewellery, and expressive makeup.

Renowned exponents: Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, Balasaraswati, Rukmini Devi, Sanjukta Panigrahi.

2.2 Kathakali (Kerala)

Kathakali, known as the “ballad of the east,” began roughly in the late 16th century in Kerala’s temple theatre tradition, but its roots may trace back millennia through ritual folk plays such as Krishnanattam and Koodiyattam. It evolved into a dance‑drama form combining music, acting, hand‐and‐eye gestures, and striking facial make‑up

Features:

Kathakali stories are drawn from epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, and their sources often highlight cosmic battles; scenes such as Draupadi’s vow and Bhima’s vengeance are performed with subtle finger shakes and precise eye movement more than grand violence, to great dramatic effect

Exponents: Kalamandalam, Rita Ganguly, Ramankutty Nair, Gopinath, Krishnaprasad, Kavalam Narayana Panicker.

2.3 Mohiniyattam (Kerala)

Literally “dance of the enchantress,” Mohiniyattam is a soft, lyrical solo dance traditionally performed by women in Kerala temples. Inspired by feminine lasya aesthetics, it focuses on the gentle sway of the waist and hips (recalling waves and coconut palm breezes), flowing costumes in white/gold, and nuanced facial expressions strutted through mukh‑abhinaya (facial language) and hand gestures.

Musical ensemble: Idakka (hourglass drum), mridangam, vina, flute, and near-tempo cymbals. No abrupt jerky movement—frames flow into each other fluidly.

Well‑known performers: Gopika Varma, Sunanda Nair, Jayaprabha Menon

2.4 Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Developed in the village artisans’ enclave Kuchipudi in 17th‑century Andhra by Vaishnava poet Siddhendra Yogi, this form introduced dance‑drama in Telugu, with unique spectacles such as Tarangam—dancers standing on the rim of brass plates with a pot on their head, highlighting balance and rhythm

Eminent exponents: Siddhendra Kalakshetram, Radha and Malathi Reddy, Yamini Krishnamurthy, Indrani Rehman.

2.5 Odissi (Odisha)

Named after Odhranitrya as mentioned in Natya Shastra, Odissi was preserved in Odisha’s temple tradition (Maharis and Gotipuas). Its revival in the mid‑20th century was led by gurus such as Kelucharan Mohapatra and Pankaj Charan Das

Trademark elements:

Renowned exponents: Kelucharan Mohapatra, Pankaj Charan Das, Sonal Mansingh, Raghunath Dutta.

2.6 Kathak (North India)

Originating in North Indian temple tradition—Kathakars (storytellers)—told tales through song, facial expressions, and movement, later reaching Mughal courts where Persian aesthetics merged to elevate its artistry

Kathak has three major Gharanas (lineages):

  1. Lucknow Gharana (Awadh): Under Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, characterized by graceful abhinaya, fluid gestures, sensitivity to thumri, and literary nuance. Exponents: Pandit Birju Maharaj, Shambhu Maharaj, Lachhu Maharaj
  2. Jaipur Gharana (Rajput courts): Focused on “tatkaar” footwork, parans drawn from pakhawaj, lightning-fast chakkars, athletic precision. Key figures: Sunder Prasad, Kundan Lal, Jai Lal
  3. Banaras (Benares) Gharana: Founded by Janaki Prasad with devotional permutations; emphasis on natwari bols (dance syllables), minimal but expressive spins, fusion of nritta and natya, and deeper rhythmic interplay. Known personalities: Sitara Devi, Gopi Krishna, Janaki Prasad

Kathak performances weave thaat, tukra, parana, tora, rhythmic gambits between dancer and tabla performer (jugalbandi), dramatic gat bhaav sequences that personify mythological characters, and often ending with a mathematical tehai cycle (tripartite rhythmic cadence).

Musically based on Hindustani classical, costumes range from lehenga‑kurta to anarkali, jewelry minimal, focus on ghungroo ankle bells, and expressive mor mukh, or peacock face—eyes, eyebrows, and head tilts weaving stories.

2.7 Manipuri (Manipur)

The most devotional of classical styles, Manipuri centers on Rasa-Leela—the spiritual dances recounting the love of Krishna and Radha. In its presentation, the emotional lasya outweighs overt rhythmical tandava. The dance is subtle, slow, and internalized.

Key features:

Notable exponents: Guru Bipin, Bimbavati Devi, Jhaveri Sisters (Nayana, Ranjana, Suverna, Dharshana), Kalakshetra’s Manipuri wing.

2.8 Sattriya (Assam)

The youngest classical form, Sattriya traces back to 15th‑century Assam, developed by saint‑poet Srimanta Sankardev to enrich his Ankia Naat (one‑act devotional plays) and Bhakti theatre in Vaishnava monasteries (sattras)

Essence and structure:

Gurus and guardians: Guru Jatin Goswami, Dr Mallika Kandali, and institutions like Sattriya Kendra, Sankardev Kalakshetra that helped win Akademi recognition in 2000

Techniques, Theory & Philosophy Shared Across Forms

Despite differences in costumes, region, and style, classical dance forms of India share a common underpinning:

Continuity and Evolution

Revival of forms in the modern era

Post the Devadasi abolition and colonial disapproval in the 19th century, most Indian classical forms were nearly lost—but revivalists such as Rukmini Devi, Vallathol, Kelucharan Mohapatra, Gopinath, Kuchipudi gurus, and Assamese bhokots of Sattriya preserved their scripture, costumes, and performance tradition on national stages and international festivals.

Contemporary adaptation, global outreach

Today, all eight traditions coexist side by side:

Through such adaptations, the ancient grammar from Natya Shastra remains vibrant—not as museum relics but as lived, breathing artworks.

Why Indian Classical Dance Matters Today

In performing these eight classical dances, India continues the millennia‑old tradition of weaving story, spirituality, movement, and music into one living heritage.


India’s classical dance forms are more than aesthetic spectacle—they are living archives of spiritual thought, regional cultures, and human emotion. From the silent boldness of the Bronze Girl to the dramatic fervor of Kathakali, to the devotional swirl of Sattriya, dance has shaped and sustained Indian identity across millennia. Let me know if you’d like a more visual, teaching‑guide version or any form in isolation—you’ve got plenty of walls of dance to scale.

For more related content, explore the links below:

 

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