Early city:

1. Harappa Civilization:

• It developed about 4700 years ago.
• Many of these cities were divided into 2 or more parts.
• The western part was smaller but with higher citadels
• The eastern part was larger but with lower town
• The bricks were laid in interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong.
• Special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a tank: Great Bath.
• Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been performed.
• Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Lothal had elaborate store houses.
• Houses were either one or two storeyed high, with rooms built around a courtyard.
• Most houses had a separate bathing area, and some had wells to supply water.
• Many of these cities had covered drains.
• All three — houses, drains and streets — were planned and built at the same time.
• Most of the things are made of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
• Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
• Harappans also made seals out of stone which are rectangular and had an animal carved on them.
• They made pots with beautiful black designs.
• Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh about 7000 years ago.
• The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman.
• Tin may have bought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.
• Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka.
• A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds but wooden plough not found while excavation.
• As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form of irrigation may have been used.
• Dholavira was located in the Rann of Kutch, where there was fresh water and fertile soil.
• Dholavira was divided into three parts but other Harappan cities 2 parts.
• Large letters of the Harappan script that were carved out of white stone and perhaps inlaid in wood.
• Here raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available.
• A dockyard at Lothal, where boats and ships came in from the sea and through the river channel.

Early Republic

1. Janapadas

• The word janapada literally means the land where the jana or people set its foot and settled down.
• Excavations of janapadas, settlements, were found at Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapur near Meerut
• The people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals.
• They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard.
• Special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware of simple lines and geometric patterns.

2. Mahajanapadas

• Around 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and they became mahajanapadas.
• Most had a capital city, many of these were fortified
• The new rajas now began maintaining Armies.
• Soldiers were paid regular salaries.
• Changes in agriculture around this time were seen.
• There was growing use of iron plough Here more grain could be produced than with wooden plough.
• Second, people began transplanting paddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields.

3. Magadha

• Rivers such as Ganga, Son made the transport easier.
• Water supplies for both drinking and agriculture was done.
• There were iron ore mines in the region which was able to make strong tools and weapon.
• Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the two powerful rulers who used all means to conquer other janapadas.
• Mahapadma Nanda, extended his control up to the north-west part of subcontinent.
• Magadha’s capital was shifted from Rajagriha (present Rajgir) to Pataliputra (present Patna)
• Alexander of Macedonia reached upto the banks of river Beas in light of conquering Magadha, but his soldiers refused due to fear of Magadha’s elephant and chariot armies.

1. Vajji

• It was having distinct government from Mahajanapadas.
• Government was known as ganaor sangha.
• Vaishali(Bihar) was its capital.
• Rulers were called Raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies for future course of action.
• Women, dasas and kammakaras [landless agriculture laborers] could not participate in these assemblies.
• Both the Buddha and Mahavira belonged to ganas.
• Powerful Rajas tried to conquer sanghas.
• But the Gupta era started when last Sangha ruler was defeated.